Marine Birds Thematic Assessment

Activities exerting pressures on marine birds

Human activities are distributed widely across the North-East Atlantic, but the intensity of the activities and of the pressures they impose on the marine environment vary greatly between OSPAR Regions and sub-divisions. Some sea areas are affected by many activities; in others, only a few may be significant. Table A.1 below is taken from the Human Activity Thematic Assessment and gives a high-level summary of the intensity and trends of selected activities across the OSPAR Regions, based on analysis in the feeder reports. 

Aquaculture, fisheries, renewable energy and tourism have increased in the last 10 years in most of the OSPAR Regions, while aggregate extraction, agriculture, oil and gas extraction and shipping remained generally stable. Aquaculture, renewable energy and tourism are expected to increase in the coming years. The future trends of some activities such as fisheries and shipping are uncertain, but their intensity is likely to increase in the OSPAR Maritime Area (particularly shipping in some Arctic waters). See the Human Activity Thematic Assessment for further details on main activities occurring in each OSPAR Region.

Coastal defence and flood protection, Offshore structures (other than oil/gas/renewables) and Land claim [Physical restructuring of rivers, coastline or seabed (water management)]:
Land claim can include the draining of coastal areas (such as the polders in the Netherlands or Norfolk Broads in the United Kingdom) and the seaward extension of ports (such as Zeebrugge and Rotterdam). The related reclamation activities can lead to habitat losses and disturbance of marine birds (e.g., noise, light, presence of machinery, people, equipment) as well as disturbance to water currents. 

The coastal defences and flood protections needed to protect people and property involve the construction, operation and decommissioning of, for example, seawalls, flood doors and embankments, which can lead to disturbance of birds during construction and the loss of habitats.

Certain types of construction, operation and decommissioning of intentionally built structures (e.g., artificial islands) cause changes to habitats which could affect bird roosting, breeding and feeding areas, and behaviours.

Most navigational dredging is within established waterways, so there is potential for habituation. Capital dredging operations (i.e., to a depth not previously dredged, or to a depth not dredged within the last 10 years) have the potential to lead to the loss of marine bird habitats, but also to disturb and displace them.

Extraction of oil and gas, including infrastructure and Extraction of minerals [Extraction of non-living resources]:
Society’s needs for energy and stable economies are drivers for the extraction of oil and gas. Society’s need for material drives the extraction of minerals.

The exploration, operation and decommissioning of oil and gas platforms and the associated infrastructure (pipeline and cables) interact directly with marine bird habitat. Oil and gas production activities can cause disturbance, but oil spills, litter and habitat loss can also affect birds at sea.

The extraction of oil and gas can potentially interact with marine bird habitat through physical loss of habitat (wellheads, platforms, pipelines) and the degradation of surrounding habitat, for example through increased turbidity, chemical contaminants and visual disturbance. The extraction of minerals has the potential to interfere with marine bird feeding areas because disturbance of the seabed can reduce the food supply to marine birds feeding on benthic prey or demersal fish. Further detail is provided in the relevant feeder report, OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 – Extraction of non-living Resources .

Military operations [Security/defence]:
The removal or detonation of lost / sunken munition can affect marine birds because of the underwater noise disturbance, and there is potential for (lethal) injuries (not yet sufficiently well documented). Shooting practice, as well as training with jets, helicopters and naval ships, cause disturbance (Danil and Leger, 2011; Fuller et al., 2018; van der Kolk et al., 2020a, b, van der Kolk, 2021).

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave and tidal power), including infrastructure, Nuclear energy and Transmission of electricity and communications (cables) [Production of energy]:
Seabirds are impacted by the construction and operation of renewable energy developments, including far-ranging displacement and lethal collisions caused by offshore wind farms and mortality from tidal-stream energy generation. The laying of power cables related to offshore renewable energy generation causes disturbance during construction and habitat change at the seafloor. 

The nuclear energy plants located on the coast in some regions normally deploy some form of cooling water intake / outfall, often with pipes running into the sub-tidal area (bird habitat). Further detail is provided in the relevant feeder report, OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 – Offshore Renewable Energy Generation .

Fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational) and Hunting and collecting for other purposes [Extraction of living resources]: 
The extraction of living resources can easily affect marine birds. Fishing activities differ between regions and interact with seabirds in multiple ways, ranging from prey depletion, mortality of birds in fishing gear (incidental by-catch), and release of litter (with potential for lethal entanglement and ingestion) to additional food supply (discards). Hunting, egg harvesting and the use of unfledged offspring for food influence both the mortality and the productivity of marine bird populations. Further detail is provided in the relevant feeder report, OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 - Fisheries .

Transport shipping and Transport infrastructure [Transport]:
Transport interacts directly with marine bird habitats through physical and visual disturbance by moving vessels / aircraft, underwater noise, light, contaminants, litter and non-indigenous species. Further detail is provided in the relevant feeder report, OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 – Shipping and Ports .

Tourism and leisure infrastructure and Tourism and leisure activities [Tourism and leisure]:
Tourism and leisure infrastructures can be adjacent to or within marine bird habitat. The very wide range of tourism activities affects seabirds in several ways, including disturbance and displacement from habitats. Further detail is provided in the relevant feeder report, OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 – Recreation and Tourism .

Aquaculture - marine, including infrastructure and Agriculture [Cultivation of living resources]:
Aquaculture and agriculture directly interact with marine bird habitat and can influence contaminant and nutrient levels in the marine environment, affecting water quality and negatively impacting on marine biodiversity. In addition, microbial pathogens - such as Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza – can circulate between kept birds within agricultural systems and wild bird populations (Horimoto and Kawaoka Y. 2005; de Bruin et al., 2022), including those migratory species covered by this assessment, sometimes with significant mortality. Further details are provided in the relevant feeder report, OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 – Aquaculture , OSPAR Feeder Report 2021 – Agriculture .